Essay --

Opera, as we know it today, with its blend of poetry, practice of medicine drama and elaborate sets, has its grow in ancient Greek theatre. Great drama and tragedies of ancient Greece were punctuated by musical and lyrical interludes. This was the early conception of operatic ideas in using music and song to reflect characters emotions in narratives. The humanist movement in fifteenth-century Florence, Italy held works of the classical civilisations in high regard. The inspiration which stemmed from ancient Greece and Rome greatly influenced art, music and architecture. The intermedi, which was a musical interlude that took place between acts of plays involving music, singing, elaborate costumes and sets, was popularised for Florentine public celebrations for the powerful Medici family in the sixteenth-century. It developed into a play in spite of appearance a play and became a precursor to the grandeur of Baroque opera productions. (Bellingham, et al., 2004, p. 11) Although we g enerally view a composer as the author of an opera, music is but wholeness of the elements which contributes to the eventual staging of the performance. It is therefore necessary to study an opera in its context, beyond its musical inflections. Opera is fraught with contradictions between the composers intentions and their realisation by the performers in the function of an opera audience, which takes part in a social performance that has often rivalled the performance on stage and between the demands of authenticity and the guide for creative interpretation in performing older works. (Raeburn, 2007, p. 8)The development of opera practices in the seventeenth and eighteenth century is evidently affected by social, political, economic and cultural currents. The earliest ... ...ntury opera showed the value of music over text.Though operatic practices had evolved greatly over a span of a hundred years, disregarding the era, Opera, by contrast, is notable for the multiplicity of forces that must be brought together openly for its making for example, the financial powers that provide for its lavish needs the diverse and often belligerent talents, drawn from a number of arts, who are expected to work together to create and perform its texts the audiences who use it to satisfy both their aesthetic and their social cravingsThe level of opera is thus not simply a conventional history of shifting period styles and competing national traditions, for it must accommodate countless nonaesthetic elements that help imprint these styles and that these styles sometimes even shape in return. (Lindenberger, Opera, The Extravagant Art, 1984, pp. 235-236)

Essay on Spiritual Poverty in James Joyces Dubliners -- Dubliners Es

Spiritual Poverty Exposed in The Dubliners Joyce describes the spiritual scantness of the people of Dublin in the industrial age, with powerful images of mechanized humans and animated machines. In After the Race and Counterparts he delineates characters with appropriate portraits of human automation. Machines conquer human attributes and vitality in opposition to the vacuous citizens of Irelands capitalist city. Joyces use of metaphorical language brings to life the despair of his country. In Winesburg, Ohio, Sherwood Anderson writes an allegorical account of the disaster of mankind (1919). Although Anderson depicts rural life in the New World, his understanding of human nature and descriptive terminology provide a valuable framework for examining Joyces version of urban misery in the Old World. The Book of the Grotesque, the opening piece of Andersons short story collection, animates the thoughts of a dying old man It was his notion that the wink one of the people took one of the truths to himself, called it his truth, and tried to live his life by it, he became a grotesque and the truth he embraced became a falsehood. (24, Penguin Edition). This notion, that belief in a single truth or paradigm distorts people such that they become warped and can no longer function as human, is fundamental to Joyces characterizations of the Dubliners. Twentieth Century Homo sapiens can be distinguished from machines by their potential to think openly and consider myriad brains without being paralyze by a singular absolute. When people clutch an idea and transform it into an ideal, the separation between man and machine becomes blurred. Human automatons mechanically follow the programming of their truth. In A... ... demands that he find an outlet for his frustration, and he beats his child to slake the strange thirst for violence of an alcoholic. When an individual seizes a single idea or paradigm they loose their humanity and assume the form of a grotesque machine. Joyces characterizations of mechanical people and animate machines in The Dubliners follow this philosophy as presented by Sherwood Anderson, and reinforce its applicability. Dubliners are anesthetized by their truths and experience a paralysis of their human possibilities. Only dull machinery remains. This machinery is then capable of great inhumanity as it follows the scripture of its truth. Alcoholics can beat children, Capitalists can ravage countries, and Nationalists can fight wars (religious or profane) to exterminate other ethnicities. Works CitedJoyce, James Dubliners, New YorkPenguin, 1993.

Woodstock 1969 Essay -- essays research papers

Woodstock 69Many large concerts occurred throughout America in the summer of 1969, that none were as well known and symbolic as Woodstock. Its message was clear three days of Peace and Music. Its impact on Americas culture and society as well as its youth will not be forgotten for many years to come. four men named Michael Lang, Artie Kornfield, John Roberts, and Joel Rosenman originally established Woodstock. The mens initial idea for the festival was to promote the idea of a new recording studio apartment in Bethel, New York, which is where the event actually took place. (Jacksonville.net) Because of the extensive amount of rain that fell before and during Woodstock, the site was changed twice and ended up on sludge Yasgurs farm. (Bethelwoodstockmuseum.com) This resulted in the loss of preparation time. The stage had not been entirely put up and the sound system was dangerously assembled. There were many other problems that occurred as a result of the mud produced during the r ain. Most of the gates and fences were not put up which allowed many tribe to enter the festival for free.(Jacksonville.net) The mud in like manner created a major cleanup project after the festival ended.Woodstock gathered an unexpectedly large attendance. Only 50,000 to 100,000 people were expected to arrive at the site. These add up seemed small compared to the 400,000 to 500,000 people who converged on the area on August 15, 16, and 17 of 1969. (Websters) Many expected singers and bands could not arrive due to traffic backed up for miles along all the roads leading to the area. It was said that nearly one million people could have attended the concert if it had lasted longer. (Visi.com) Many recognized musicians preformed at the concert such as Janis Joplin, Jimi Hendrix, Creedence Clearwater Revival, The Who, Jefferson Airplane, and many others. (Home.columbus.rr.com) Truly by the first day, as the musicians looked out upon the vast crowd, they must have known that Woodstock was not deprivation to be just another concert that would be forgotten. On the outside, Woodstock could just be considered another concert for the youth of the time to hear their favorite music, but it can be seen that it was much more than that. Although the music was a large part of the festival, there would be no reason for it to be remembered this long if that w... ...stock fans that make the trip to all three festivals bearing the Woodstock name. It seemed that the other men and women that made up the rest of the audience were nearly all there to get drunkard and destroy anything they could get their hands on. By the end of the concert, nearly all of the stage and equipment was destroyed. Women were raped and all souvenirs such as shirts and posters were stolen. (MTV Woodstock Uncensored) The acts displayed at Woodstock 99 could be summed up in two words destructive force. It went beyond misguided violence to such a point as to bring down nearly of the original Woodstocks glory. Unfortunately now when people think of Woodstock they will also think of the destruction that occurred during its latest attempt at recreation.Despite peoples desire to bring back the feeling of the original Woodstock, all that can remain is its effect on the people who experienced it and the affect on the culture they lived in. The concert was necessary to have because it eased tension in a time of history that was full of war and prejudices. Its stories will be told, near good, some bad, but the desire that people feel to experience it firsthand will never be lost.

To Kill a Mockingbird, Chapter 20 Analysis :: To Kill a Mockingbird Essays

In chapter 20 of To kill a Mockingbird, Harper Lee wrote about the great divide between colored and white slew in Maycomb County, and why the public should not judge them too harshly. The Author explains whole this through genus Atticus who is fighting on gobbler Robinsons behalf, that Tom did not rape Mayella Ewell. Atticus tried to persuade the jury beyond reasonable doubt, that Mayella was simply claiming Tom had raped her, to cover up for her wanting to kiss and tempt Tom Robinson (A black man). Atticus explained that Mayella had obviously broken no law, but a rigid and time-honoured code of their parliamentary procedure and whoever broke this code would be hounded from their midst as unfit to live with (page.224). Atticus explains that guilt was her motivation, Mayella was just one among thousands that would be ashamed to have whatsoever relationship with a black man, other than him being a servant. Mayella simply did not want to be tormented or seen as a Negro lover, so s he decides to get rid of the evidence, Tom Robinsons life.It is also clear, that Atticus believes in Tom Robinsons innocence with a passion. Atticus is not defending the man just because judge Taylor appointed him, he is defending him out of his own moral principles. Not because he has to, but because he wants to and its what he believes is right. Atticus refers to Tom as a quiet, respectable, humble Negro (page.225). Even though Atticus tries to be on good terms with all people, he has a dislike for people who fall under the category of white trash. However his view on people like this is implausibly different to the stereotypical view, which is shown more by his sister Alexandra. Alexandra, like many others, believes that if people are from a poor family or a family that had a ruinous streak, then they are not worthy to be friends with people like the Finches. Atticus view is completely opposite. He sees people for their qualities and not possessions, people like Bob Ewell, he sees as trash, because of the way he abuses his children and the way he abuses the law. So it is clear why Tom is even respected by Atticus, because he is polite and would never harm another human being unless in the defence of someone. So, in Atticus point of view, sentencing Tom Robinson as guilt-ridden and to receive the capital punishment, would be similar to killing a mockingbird, something he believes, is a sin.

Jumping Mouse :: essays research papers

Jumping MouseThe story of Jumping Mouse may seem artless at first. But it is far more than just a story about a small rodent. There are so many central themes that reflect society, faith, generosity, personal growth, and many other aspects of a persons daily life.The story starts out with a seemingly simple mouse, who hears what others do not. He dares to question what is out of the ordinary, and seeks out the truth instead of dismissing it as nothing. He shows curiosity, which leads him to invigorated ideas. When he has his experience at the river, he is given a new name, which signifies his own personal growth. When he takes his newfound ideas back to the mouse society they dont believe him because it is far too different than what they already know, and they check that he is harmful. The society of mice reflects society in how they didnt consider something so they pushed it away. So many times people dont accept or ensure things because they are out of the ordinary, so they shun it. It happens every day with racism and conflicts over human sexuality. Most people dont understand that there is no way to define normal. All around the world things are different, and one needs to be open minded enough to understand it. Now look what being open minded did for the mouse. His willingness to listen and his faith in the frog allowed him to see into the rest of the world, even deeper into his own mind. There is a fine line between being open-minded and being gullible. Both will listen to anything to try to understand it, but gullible people lack common sense. The mouse seemed kind of gullible, in how hed risk his safety by jumping in the water all because the frog verbalize to.Jumping mouse is like many people, always seeking a better way of life. The other mice were quite content with their busy life, because that was the way they energize always known. But Jumping Mouse had a taste for what else the world had to offer him. When Jumping Mouse met with the ol d mouse, he found a completed place to live, free from harm and lots of food. He was told he should stay but somehow, he knew that he could have better. Even later on his voyage to find the mountains he discovered a small mouse utopia with an abundant supply of food and shelter, everything a mouse could want.

Marital Discord in ‘Madame Bovary’ by Gustave Flaubert and ‘Like Water

In Literature and Life, Love is a powerful force. Sans love feelings, desires and relationships may seem empty. This force however, can also be destructive, even may end a marriage. Marital discord, arising in general, due to infatuation, lust or affection for a third person, may crop up primarily facilitated by adverse familial, economic or societal conditions that do frequently find their mention in the written word. Some of these concerns like family, marriage, sexuality, society and death, are notably illustrated by the authors, Gustave Flaubert in Madame Bovary and Laura Esquivel in Like Water for cocoa.Bring Rosaura in.These works under study present the marriages of Emma-Charles Bovary in Madame Bovary and Rosaura-Pedro in Like Water for Chocolate that are shaken at the end of each plot. It seems that marital discord is an indirect corollary of the roughness that was forced upon both the female protagonists, Emma and Tita. The cruelty imposed on Tita, as quite evident, was b y virtue of her relationship with Mama Elena her being the youngest daughter who was thus traditionally disallowed marriage and obligated to serve her mother for as long as she (mother) lived. On the other hand, on Emmas rough times were much subtle and, to an extent, self-carved. Ms. Roualt lived with her father and while in a convent school, she was initially devoted to learning her catechism well. However, as romantic novels came along with an old spinster working there, Emma began to fancy the love affairstears and kisses, skiffs in the lunation1 With these books, Emma would occasionally drift into the alluring phantasmagoria of genuine emotion1. Then, as the readers may understand, Emma started fantasizing and drawing a veil of... ...laws of Emma ( perennial dissatisfaction, adultery, extravagance) and Rosaura (jealousy) that end up in their tragedy.Works Cited1 Page 36, chapter 6, part I, Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert and translated into side of meat by Lowell Bair, Bantam Classics2 Chapter 6, Volume 1, Pride and Prejudice written by Jane Austen3 Page 60, Chapter 9, Part I, Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert and translated into English by Lowell Bair, Bantam Classics4 Page 33, chapter 5, part I, Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert and translated into English by Lowell Bair, Bantam Classics5 Page 32, chapter 5, part I, Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert, translated into English by Lowell Bair, Bantam Classics6 Page 86, Chapter 3, part II, Madame Bovary, written by Gustave Flaubert, translated into English by Lowell Bair, Bantam Classics

Play in Childhood Essay

Play is one of the most defining features of childhood in westerly society. It is something that all children have in common and what snitchs a childs world unalike from adults. In answering the question, this essay will first meditate the different opinions held by theorists as to why children bring. I will then look at role fill, which is one of the many cases of play that children shut up in. at long last I will look at childrens play as a social process using examples from other cultures and then briefly learn the reasons that children themselves believe they play.It is wrong to assume that children have al demeanors played. Historian, Aries (1962 in phonograph recording 1 intellect Childhood Chapter 2) claimed that childhood was a social twisting and that the view of childhood as a separate state did not occur until around the 16th and 17th century before this, children were economically multipurpose and not valued for the simple joy that children muckle bring. Th is was further illustrated by Mayhew (1861 in Book 1 arrangement Childhood Chapter 1), whos observations from his meeting with the watercress female child led him to state that she had been deprived of her childhood.This was largely due to the fact that the girls work responsibilities did not allow time for play and she had no knowledge of parks or anything associated with play. From this it could be deduced that Mayhew felt children should play. Mayhews example too showed that play is a social construction, as although it was clear that the watercress girl did not play, the fact that Mayhew suggests this is abnormal may merely be constructed from his own opinions that childhood should be a time of play.One of the first attempts to explain the impressiveness of play came from the publication of Emile by Jean Jacques Rousseau in (1762 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1). In this, Rousseau emphasized that childhood should be a time of play and children should have the fr eedom to do this. For Rousseau, play is consistent with a happy healthy childhood, which is often linked with the romantic discourse. This is in job with the Puritan discourse which believes that allowing children to play is a risk to the civilization processes, as this squeeze out only be achieved through strict discipline. It also believes parents should be accountable for channeling childrens play into creative configurations of work which will helpchildren to learn morally and intellectually. It is obvious therefore that these theories differ in their approaches to play. For the Romantic perspective play is a way that children can express themselves, but for the Puritan approach, play is the way through which children learn.Other opinions, such as those from teachingalists like as Piaget (1896 1980 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) saw play as an opportunity where children learn, practice and consolidate new skills and furthermore play provides them with a time where failing during a task was not going to have disastrous consequences. Vygotskys view on the reason why children play is different (1896-1934 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) as he believed that play was a significant reveal in childrens social development in that it helps them acquire skills to learn to cop-operate with others.Play is also important for childrens cognitive development as children use psychological tools during play such as language and memory. Through play children learn, explore and extend their skills, for example Vygotsky suggested that when children play make-believe, they can experiment with adult roles and ways of that otherwise wouldntt be possible for them. It is obvious therefore that for Piaget and Vygotsky, the reason children play is to learn.However, psychoanalysts like Freud(1920 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) were more interested in the significance of play for their excited development, suggesting that a childs psyc he could be revealed through their play. Freud suggested from his research that play could have a therapeutic exploit as it allowed children to rid themselves of negative feelings. Freuds views were the building block for others like his daughter Anna who set up nursery for children during the flake world war and recognized that observing childrens play had potential as a method of diagnosis, as well as cosmos of therapeutic value for children who had experienced emotional trauma in their lives. Similarly, Klein used miniature dolls as resources that children could use to enact turn out their inner feelings and anxieties. This shows that psychologists such as Klein and both Anna and Sigmund Freud felt that children play to engage with emotional events in their lives.There are several different suits of play, but I shall concentrate on role play now and why children engage in this type of play. This has been widely researched by Mead (1934 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Cha pter 1),who felt pretend and make believe situations are crucial for childrens personal development. Through role play, children are able to imagine themselves in other roles which helps their developing wizard of identity, and through this children develop a sense of who they are and also how others see them.This was highlighted in Activity 2 (p8 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) which contained an extract from Bascoms (1969 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) research in Nigeria. It involved interviewing a father while his 3 children observed the process and invented a new halt from these observations. The activity asked us to think about the significance of this new game. The first child sat on Bascoms chair holding a pen and authorship the second child sat in the interpreters chair (occupied previous to this by their father) while the third child sat on the bench imitating the informer.In the example, the second child told the third child to tell the firs t child about Odua. The third child then replied and from this the second child interpreted this and relayed it to the anthropologist in a string of meaningless sounds, supposedly echoing the English language. The first child who was meant to be the anthropologist then wrote on the paper and replied in more meaningless sounds, and so the sequence was repeated. The role-play that the Yoruba children undertook involved skilful imitation to impersonate the 3 adults and their gestures, even their language and the sequence of events.A comparable study occurred in the UK by Kehily et al (2002in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) whose research was carried out through extensive interviews which were audio taped with children in their school. It was establish that children incorporated the tape recorder into their games and discussions often imitating the structure of the interview process, even when they werent being recorded.Both of these researches on role play countenance Mead s possibleness (1934 in Book 3Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) that children have the ability to observe others and then use these observations to imitate others. The reasons children do this according to Mead is that it helps them to make sense of new and unfamiliar situations.Role play is further explored in video 3 muckle 3 pretend play featuring Melissa and Hadleigh cured 4, playing mummy and baby at nursery school. This example further supports Meads claim by showing that pretend play helps children to act out imaginary roles.Perhaps one of the most important features of play is that it is a social process. Thomas Gregor (1977in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) studied childrens games in Mehinaku, Brazil, and believed that games mirrored the structure and values of adult society. He observed a game of teneju itai (womens sons), this involved children marrying and carving a baby from a lump of earth. The mother then mimics cradling the baby, which later dies, and i s buried in a hole. As early childhood death is a common occurrence for this Brazilian tribe, this game prepares children for the possible death of a sibling or playmate.This game also shows it is non competitive, did not involve hierarchies and did not identify winners or losers. In contrast, in the UK, Laura and Aalliyah (Video 3 band 3) use their imaginations in their role play acting out difficult emotions such as rivalry, conflict and death. These children are in a culture where they are protected from issues such as death and pretend play may offer children a way of exploring themes and issues that are not part of their daily life. Both examples also support Freuds theory that children use play to act worrying or troublesome situations, and that play is a way in which children can express their feelings.Play, as a social process is not always a positive experience as Meads theory seemed to suggest. During play children can have many decisions to make and negotiate such as who can or cant play, meaning play can sometimes produce power relations and social hierarchies amongst children. This was shown in research by Thorne (1999 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) whos observations found that in the games that they played, childrencreated gender boundaries with single sex friendships, and that children may use play to achieve a position of high status within their group.Furthermore, play helps childrens identities develop as research with boys in Western societies showed that the play which boys engaged in involved language and physicality which was often competitive, and that they engaged in this type of play in order to help them achieve their masculine identity. This was further supported by research by Epstein (1997 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) which suggested that children engage in skipping rhymes and games such as kiss chase in the playground in order to help construct their gender identity.Finally, it was also suggested by B ack (1990 in Book 3 Understanding Childhood Chapter 1) that the play that these boys engaged in was not nevertheless play for playing involvement but was also a method used to test the boundaries of friendship, and to decide who was or was not included in their group.Finally, as the research so far has been from adults, it is important to consider what childrens views are on why they play. One reason why children play is that it is a time when they can back off from reality and create their own fantasy world. This is seen with Joshua, (VIDEO 3 BAND1) whos favourite type of play seems to be reading. He states that he reads because through doing this he can escape into an imaginary world. He reads, believing it to be important as it broadens his imagination and aids his learning.This example also shows that as well as being a social process, play can also be solitary. This video also shows Tinco who states that he plays at the temple to find peace and freedom which he does not expe rience in his home village. The reason Sean seems to play is that he enjoys being in the dark tunnel with his friends playing scary, daring games. These examples show simply that children themselves play for reasons such as to learn, find enjoyment and to have peace and freedom away from adults.These examples showed that it is evident all children play but the way they play can vary depending upon culture. This was also highlighted by Opie and Opie (1969) who researched on childrens playground culture which found thatthe same rhyming games had been around for a long time, they just varied from culture to culture.We have seen therefore that different approaches have contrasting reasons as to why children play, and furthermore that children have different reasons as to why they play.One type of play which children engage in is role play which has been said to play an important part in the development of children enabling them to make sense of situations and form identities. Furthermor e, children play as it is a social process which allows children to act out roles in order to help them make sense of situations around them, enabling them to come along an understanding of how others see them which in turn aids their identity development.REFERENCESBook 1 Understanding Childhood Chapter 2 U212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 1 Understanding Childhood Chapter 6 U212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 3 Understanding Childhood, Chapter 1 U212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 3 Understanding Childhood, Study Guide Audio and visual notes, Unit 16 U212, The Open University, Milton KeynesBook 3, Understanding Childhood, Video 3 band 1 My SpaceU212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University.Book 3, Understanding Childhood, Video 3 band 3 Pretend PlayU212 Understanding Childhood, The Open University.

Changing Role of the Artist from Different Times

Art is contemporarily defined as the product or process of deliberately placement symbolic elements in a way that processs and affects the senses, emotions, and/or intellect. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression. The renaissance is the rebirth of classicism classicism comes from the ancient Greece and capital of Italy they portray art to captivate perfection, harmony and ordinate. Italian High Renaissance mechanics achieved ideal of harmony and balance comparable with the works of ancient Greece or Rome.Renaissance classicism was a form of art that removed the extraneous detail and showed the world as it was. Forms, colours and proportions, light and shade effects, spatial harmony, composition, perspective, anatomy all be handled with total control and a level of accomplishment for which there argon no real precedents. Up until the middle terms, the situation and status of artists in orderliness were similar to other skilled , manual workers. They were usually employed to work on specific commissions. Most artists worked anonymously.Any prestige associated with an artwork reflected more for or about, rather than on the artists. Until the 18th Century artists learnt their trade as apprentices in the workshops of establish artists. In retrospect this was the time period of sexual discrimination men were still seen as highly regarded over the typical status of women. So only men could be certified and had the opportune to be an artist. During the renaissance there was a saucy emphasis on art as an intellectual activity, not just a manual skill.This altered the role of the artist the renaissance artists played an active voice role in the intellectual life of the period, many of them wrote treaties on subjects such as perspective and painting. Their achievements as individuals were now recognised, and often celebrated. Some artists, such as Michelangelo Buonarroti, were seen as having almost divine fictiv e powers. This established artists as geniuses. Artists were portrayed as artist heroes- the artists creative powers were a revelation of gods creative powers on earth.The artist as a romantic genius was a development of the renaissance artist as a hero. That the acme artist gained superlative social positions they were proclaimed as men of genius, their powers of creation exalted as never before. C one timept of the artist as a genius was appropriate to an age obsessed with the potential of man and the style of talents personality. In the late 18th Century a German philosopher Immanuel Kant put forward the idea that artists are geniuses who are born rather then taught. Michelangelo Buonarroti a renaissance Italian Male (born 1475-1664) was perceived as a born genius.His role as an artist was established as an high renaissance priapic who was multidiscipline and a mulit-skilled painter, cutting, poet and scientist of anatomy he was highly regarded as a god like figure. His tumult uous career, with its perpetual struggles and its loving commitment to art, was to become the master pattern for the romantic genius. Michelangelos artistic skills were perceived to originate from birth nevertheless he practised as a trained apprentice at the age of 13 in the workshop of the established art master Domenico Ghirlandaio in Florence.Though as an early artist he was regarded by his father as he proclaimed that Artists are no better than shoe-makers. The neoplatonic thought that was current amongst all seemed to underlie not only his verse but much of his paintings and sculptures as he expressed sculpture is the painting as the sun is to the moon. Michelangelos reputation was established by the sale of a sleeping Cupid as a genius antique. In its exquisite finish, its flawless classism, and it evocation of the human activity in the divine and the divine in the human, the pieta is then a consummation of fifteenth century art.The perfection of the two figured is inform ed both by an expert knowledge of anatomy and by the Neoplatonic possible action that the beauty of the body is an expression of its spirit. Michelangelo was commissioned in 1501 by the new republican government to carve a colossal David, symbol of resistance and independence. after in 1508 Michelangelo was summoned by Pope Julius II, to the Sistine chapel ceiling this was Michelangelos most celebrated work.Panels portraying key stories from Genesis are surrounded by a framework with additional scenes and figured for a 4 year period. The ceiling endured Michelangelos deep religious faith, expressed through a profound care for the classical Antiquity. A modern art was nationally acclaimed and recognized. Modern Artists were perceived as an Avant Guarde that challenged the main stream, conventional art. It was focused on the artist brain. Modernism reflecting the industrial revolution was the era of mass production and consumption. One development vident in the modern era, spurred by technical growth in this century, has augmented the artist role in society the commercialization of art through the expansion of entertainment, communications, and indoctrination media. In this modern time period society did not establish the role of artist, the artist decided for themselves what role they would play in their art. Andy Warhol disrupted the common views of the role each artist should play in their art. Andy Warhol was a modern American male (born in 1928-87) He is a pop artist whose role as artist as a fame.His practise involves commercial artist advertisement and illustor. His portraits authentic from Polaroid photographs. In Warhols art, there is absolutely no sign of the artists hand or that this piece was even made by an artist. An unlearned viewer might suspect that it belongs in a grocery store rather than not a gallery or a museum. Since he uses distinguishable techniques than traditional artists, at times he may never touch the piece at all and it stil l will be credited to him. This corresponds to what was once expected from the artist. Skill is no longer involved it is much more about content, conceptual appearance, and processes.He is infatuated by food, sex, death and fame this fatuation led to consumer product, nudity and celebrity icons such as Jackie Kennedy, Elvis Privily and Marilyn. Warhol had a specific, obvious style He used repetition and simplification. Popular culture has a huge influence on his art. His art caused controversy in society. His art challenged the modernist idea of originality of the artist. Critics originally ridiculed Pop Art A range of distasteful, stupid, vulgar, assertive and ugly manifestations of the worst sorting of our society. (Solomon) Another critic Norbert Lynton quoted pop art seems on the whole leave aside the basic questions and values of art. The public responded t it favourably. American society, the post WWII and the dusty war hugely influenced his art. Warhol would conditionally say Conflicting statements that shocked and corrupted society I want everyone to think alike. I think everybody should be a machine, &Once you see pop art, you cant see America in the same way. Andy Warhol picked his subjects off supermarket shelves and from the front pages of the tabloids. He would then mass-produce the image, reiterate them by silkscreen duplication.The well-known images pushed art out of the museum and into mainstream. Warhols 100 can of Campbells Soup created in 1962 was cans assembled in a line. The serial images of consumer items in a hard-edged graphic style, Warhol wanted a machinelike art without social comment or emotion. From 1963-68 Warhol made more than sixty films which reached new depths of banality. One unruffled film, Sleep runs six hours, capturing every non-nuance of a man sleeping I like boring things Warhol stated. A natural self-promoter, Andy Warhol made himself into a media sensation he conflicted the original role of the artist.A Post-mod ern artist has adapted from a modern Avant Guarde to the role of a deconstructor of previous roles. The Post-modern time period accepts both genders as artist. With the vast technological development art has new expressive forms 2D, 3D and 4D. Their role is to convey messages to society that otherwise would go unheard, or perhaps cannot be said. Andy Goldsworthy is a British male born in 1956, Goldsworthy is a post-modern /contemporary artist He is a trained artist who studied at Bradford College (1974-1975). He is an intuitive, solitary, environmental sculpture and land artist.His art practise involves natural installations that is documented using film and photography that is viewed by the public through published books of his art. Goldsworthy uses natural materials from his property in Britain and the scour river. This material consists of rocks, ice, twigs, leaves, clay, stone, water and flowers. His conceptual practise relies on the earth I need the earth but it doesnt need me. The Dumfriesshire clay mole was created in June 1999 this was a filmed process that captured the decay. Goldsworthy ideology was focused on the cycle of collapse and rebirth I like to push things to the point of collapse.Goldsworthy has a deep conceptual meaning and symbolism in each of his artworks. He was influenced by nature, weather and seasonal change. Movement, change, light, growth and decay are the lifeblood of nature, the energies that I demonstrate to tap through my work. Goldsworthys Storm King Wall is a wall commissioned with builders to be 1. 8m high stretching across a forester, interweave through trees. The wall was built with stability to outlast seasonal change. One of his works The rowan leaves and hole is autumn leaves organised in corresponding order of colour that spirals to make a black hole.Goldsworthy symbolises hole as death. Andy Goldsworthy challenges traditional ideas the process instead of the art is the most important thing. Goldsworthy provokes a t the role of the traditional artist. Examining the historical art we draw a conclusion about the nature of a society, and even this period of time, contemporary artists still say a round about society and the mainstream way of thinking. The role of the artist has established as a manual worker, to an Avant Guarde that has adopted, manipulated and changed overtime. Artists are the mouthpiece of their culture.

Mental Ill and Workplace Lack of Diversity Literature Review Essay

IntroductionBeing occupied is a life experience which everyone wishes they could experience. Being employed allows an one-on-one prospect of be, gratitude and allows them to build their self worth. People who work low self esteem rely that they argon less fortunate in nonplus employment then others.There are many obstacles that the cordially ill experience when trying to again employment. After conducting this research I have dictated sources that will reflect on the mentally ill. There were several issues that affect the mentally ill from gain employment such as education, support system, employers lack of knowledge of this population, discrimination, stigma, stress while cosmos employed and dealing with multiple problem that occur at one time..The reason for this re look at is to centralise on issues that would occur in prevent the mentally ill from maintain employment and for the case-by-case to be more diverse while working aboard or with this population. Research was conducted on this topic and will be reflected in this review.HistoryHaving a source of income is important in someone life by having employment it allows them to be independent and also help them to obtain goods that better value their living. In September 2012 employment browse in get together States move up by 418,000 to 155.1 and there were 802,000 discouraged workers in September, a decline of 235,000 from a year earlier. Discouraged workers are persons not currently looking at for work because they believe no jobs are available for them (United States Department of Labor, 2012). This research shows how it is hard for someone who does not have a mental illness to obtain employment. The Center for malady Control and Prevention reports mentally ill is at the bottom of the employment poll which was reported from the National Health Interview Survey (cdc.gov 2012, Loveland, Driscoll, & Boyle, 2007). Being in the workforce allow you to take care of your personal needs. It allow s you to earn money and be active in society.In life this is how people determine who they are and what they want to be. The mentally ill are so afraid of revealing which they are that this might prevent them from obtaining employment. Emotion or feelings are difficult to label because they often remain hidden (Bucher, 2008). Mentally ill are afraid to tell their employer or co worker that they suffer from mental illness because of terror of being terminated because of discrimination. .Carr-Ruffino(2005) defines discrimination as actions or practices that results in members of a less powerful group being differently in ways that discriminate them. For example john told his employer he was taking medication for his mental illness. His employer response is that we dont need people here like that. The employer was not being ethnic diverse which would cause him to be sued. Diversity means being aware of your own and someone elses cultural belief, religion, race, sexual orientation. En.wikipedia.org (2012) defines cultural competency as the ability to interact effectively with people of different cultures, ethnic backgrounds. Social workers should obtain education about and seek to understand the nature of loving diversity and oppression with respect to race, ethnicity, national origin, color, sex, sexual orientation, gender identity or expression, age, marital status, political belief, religion, immigration status, and mental or physical constipation (NASW, 2008). Individual who have mental illness already are being stereotype in the adult male and now being stereotype while looking or having employment is not diverse. By being aware of someone else we can better service ourselves and them. Wikipedia (2012) defines social stigma is the extreme disapproval of, or discontent with, a person on the grounds of characteristics that distinguish them from other members of a society. Stigma may attach to a person, who differs from social or cultural norms.Vogel & Ha ake, (2006) states stigma associated with seeking mental health services, therefore, is the perception that a person who seeks psychological treatment is undesirable or socially unacceptable. Wikipedia (2012) defines job as a regular activity performed in exchange for payment. A person usually begins a job by becoming an employee, volunteering, or starting a business. function improves self-esteem, satisfaction with finances, and has been associated with reduction of hospitalization order and psychiatric symptoms (Johannesen, McGrew, Griss, & Born, 2007). Research suggests that work improves self-esteem and well-being (Gannon & Gregory, 2007). The mentally ill utilize work as belonging to something and a step to return to society without being stereotype. History has shown that the mental ill and employment has not been a major focus. In society we view the mental ill as the led fortunate and society expectation is that they would not work. Sociostructural barriers and disincentiv es have also made it difficult for people with a mental disorder to get in and stay in the competitive workforce (Marrone JF, Follwy S, Selleck V., 2005).Individual with a mental illness has right to do anything that an average individual does in the workplace or in their personal life. In order for them to do this they would need a support system which would include job coach, counseling, therapy and housing. military man Health Organization (2012) states, governments need to dedicate more of their health budget to mental health. In addition the mental health workforce needs to be developed and trained to ensure that all people have access to good quality mental health services at each level of the health care system. People who suffer from mental health issue are capable of working however the unemployment rate continues to rise. Trading Economic (2012) reports from 1948 until 2012, the United States Unemployment Rate averaged 5.8 Percent reaching an all time high of 10.8 Percent in November of 1982 and a record low of 2.5 Percent in May of 1953.The unemployment rate can be defined as the number of people actively looking for a job as a portionage of the labor force. Unemployment rates for people with serious and persistent psychiatric disabilities are the highest, typically 80-90%. (Crowther & Marchall, 2001). Employment among those with severe mental illness is much lower at eight percent (Gannon & Gregory, 2007). As a result, people with serious mental disabilities constitute one of the largest groups of social security recipients (Sanderson & Andrews, 2006).Individuals who suffer from mental illness and do not have a job will always be judged because of their illness and them not being employed. By the employer not being culturally diverse this stops the mentally ill from being employed and causes the employer to hire someone with out mental health issues. 2010 stultificationsurveys.org( 2012) reports that Kessler al-Qaida and The National Organizatio n on Disability found that pocket-size progress has been made in closing the employment gap between people with and without disabilities since the passage of the ADA into law.Reports have shown that many mental ill individual are employed a dead end job which does not have any advancement. Current reports from Kessler Foundation/NOD (2010) reports majority of employers, according to a 2010 survey, include flexible work schedules, telecommuting, and ergonomic redesign of workstations. This behavior is following The American Disability Act which states accommodation is any modification or readjustment to a job or the work environment that will enable a qualified applicant or employee with a disability to participate in the application process or to perform essential job functions. Reasonable accommodation also includes adjustments to assure that a qualified individual with a disability has rights and privileges in employment equal to those of employees without disabilities (ada.gov, 2012).Individual with mental illness are working alongside individual who are not diverse. They might be judged by their co workers after returning from treatment which causes the co worker to be biases. Most jobs that the mental ill obtain will end unsuccessful. A great effort mustiness be made to provide support networks for employees within their work environments (Nelson & Kim, 2012). Individual sometime keep their mental illness as a secret to avoid bad treatment at work which causes them not to use the employee benefits that are given. In order for the workplace to be diverse the employer must force diversity in the work place by having training for their staff. We make diversity work when were willing to imagine people from different backgrounds views the world and how theses people are view by others around them Carr-Ruffino (2005).ConclusionBy being more knowledge of the mentally ill we can avoid being biases. We can avoid decimations and stigma in the workplace and in o urselves. Mentally ill should not have a reason to experience workplace injustice and direct prejudice due to past shortcoming because they are disabled. In order for the mental ill to keep employment they would need to have a treatment plan in place. Research has shown that there are still areas in dealing with the mental ill in the workplace but we as society also must be diverse.ReferencesBucher, R. D. (2008). Building cultural intelligence (CQ) Nine megaskills. stop number Saddle River, NJ Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780131738959. Carr-Ruffino, N. (2005). Making diversity work. Upper Saddle River, NJ Pearson Prentice Hall. ISBN 9780130485120 Crowther RE, Marchall M, Bond GR,et al.(2001). Helping people with severe mental illness to obtain work systematic review. Retrieve from http//www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC26585/Drake, R.E., Becker, D.R., Biesanz, JDavid L. Vogel, Nathaniel G. Wade, and Shawn Haake (2006) Measuring the Self-Stigma Associated With want Psychologic al Help. Retrieved from https//selfstigma.psych.iastate.edu/sites/selfstigma.psych.iastate.edu/files/SSOSH_0.pdf Gannon & Gregory (2007) Barriers to improving work opportunities for people with severe mental illness. Retrieved from www.nursingtimes.net/may-2007/3248.issue Johannesen, McGrew, Griss, & Born (2007). Vocational refilling for People with Psychiatric. Retrieved from http//cirrie.buffalo.edu/encyclopedia/en/article/39/ Kessler Foundation/NOD (2010). Survey of Employment of Americans with Disabilities. Retrieved from http//www.2010disabilitysurveys.org/octsurvey/pdfs/surveyresults.pdf Loveland D, Driscoll H, Boyle M. 2007. Enhancing supported employment services for individuals with a serious mental illness A review of the literature. Journal of Vocational Rehabilitation 27(3)177-189. Marrone JF, Follwy S, Selleck V. (2005) How mental health and welfare to work interact the role of hope, sanctions, engagement, and support. Retrieved from http//www.depressionforums.org/fina nce-economics/1856-mental-illness-and-employment-discrimination National Association of Social Workers (2008). NASW code of ethics. Retrieved from http//www.naswdc.org/pubs/code/code.asp Nelson RE, Kim J. (2011).The impact of mental illness on the risk of employment termination. Retrieved from www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21642748 Sanderson K, Andrews G. (2006) Common mental disorders in the workforce recent findings from descriptive and social epidemiology. Retrieve from http//ww1.cpa-apc.org8080/Publications/Archives/CJP/2006/february/cjp-feb-06-sanderson-IR.pdf U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission( 2012) American Disability Act. Retrieved form http//www.ada.gov/qandaeng.htm The Center For Disease Control and Prevention (2012), National Health Interview Survey. Retrieve from http//www.cdc.gov/nchs/nhis.htm Trading Economic (2012) Employment Rates. http//www.tradingeconomics.com/united-states/unemployment-rate United

Lebron v Kobe

People be always looking forward to basketball season. There are many good players in the league. I think that the 2 best players are Kobe Bryant and Lebron James. Both players perform excellent on the court. Although the players play well, they are totally different athletes. The places, skills, and passion for the game are expressed in different ways. Although, Lebron James is young in the league of NBA basketball, he has the ability to shutdown close to all-star veterans. Lebrons attitude towards basketball hasnt changed a play from his high school career.Even though he is in the pros, his mentality is still squadwork. In a game like basketball you cant do everything by yourself. Many may think he is a one man team or a ball hog but, his attitude towards the game makes himself stand out. On the other hand, Kobe Bryant has had a few more years of experience than Lebron James. In the beginning of his basketball career his attitude was corresponding to that of Lebron James cur rent one. After a couple of years of playing with the same team and winning a variety of championships, his outlook on the entertainment began to change.Many in which caused controversy with his fellow former teammate Shaquille ONeal. Lebron James has very exceptional skills in the level that he plays at. Not further did he get drafted directly out of high school but, he is one of the top players that are recognized when one mentions basketball. James has led his team to consecutive playoff appearances from 2006 through 2009. On offense, Lebron is known for using his size, strength, and quickness to get past offenders. His skills have led to many comparisons to NBA legends like Magic Johnson, Oscar Robertson, and Michael Jordan.Kobe Bryant is considered one of the most complete players in NBA history. Kobe has the ability to create shots for himself and is an effective outside shooter. Aside from this, he is a standout defender, having made the All-Defensive first and second team nine of the exist ten seasons. The passion each individual has for the game of basketball is different from one a nonher. Lebron James perspective on basketball is its More Than a Game. Basketball to him is more like a lifestyle in other words. The teamwork he and his teammates show on the court create a whizz of brotherhood.Lebron knows that its not all about him because the game of basketball is a team sport. Kobe Bryants passion for the game is different. He started playing the sport at the mature of 3 years old. Kobes father was in the NBA when he was young and had a big influence on him. On the court, he knows its a job to be done and he dominates on a regular basis. There are many similarities between Lebron James and Kobe Bryant. In contrast, there are many differences as well. Each individual has a certain way they present their selves on and off the court. One thing for sure, professional basketball would not be the same without them.

Locke and Hobbes: Cause of Religious Toleration Essay

Historically, Lockes treatment of credence was genius riddled with phantasmal change, spiritual turmoil, and political changes that were shaped by and large by religious tensions. This was a time when trust, specifically the Christian Church, became fracti wizd and led to widespread war and death in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Lockes letter on Toleration promoted separation of church service and disk operating system, arguing that each institution has legitimacy and power in sure areas. The state exists to protect peoples interests, and substructure use force to protect these interests.However, the state volition not be able to coerce its people to believe in a certain religion. In Leviathan, Hobbes provides ideas that support Lockes toleration of religion. Hobbes belief in the state of nature, state of war, and covenants helps to paint a clearer picture of a world without religious intoleration. Lockes plea for tolerations is one of religious toleration in ge neral but more than specifically toleration among Christians. Locke speaks out against Christians whom deprive (men) of their estates, maim them with corporal punishments, thirst and torment them in noisome prisons, and in the end even take away their lives(Letter p.24).This type of intolerance is itself in equal because it violates valet de chambrey mandates that should characterize a consecutive Christian. The mandates of charity and meekness are violated, and those who call for committed these aggressive and violent actions against others are in themselves hypocritical. These people are usually careless about their testify virtues, imposing on others something they dont practice. According to Locke, instead of loo tabby into others moral salvation, they should practice looking into their own moral salvations as well as the salvations of family and friends.These same people are spending time and effort on trivial things like doctrinal matters and ceremonial preferences. Lock e urges that one should not worry so much about matters that, on the surface are nice and intricate, but exceed(s) the capacity of ordinary understandings(Letter p. 24). Instead of wasting time on these futile activities, one should actively try to better oneself. Separation of church and state is an important premise that buttresses his argument throughout the letter. It is a separation of civil versus religious situation and who has power of what domain.Locke argues that civil g overnment has certain responsibilities for its citizens, which include preserving and advancing the civil interests, well-being and life of its citizens. Locke defines the one who wields civil laterality as a magistrate and it is the magistrate who is enjoined to bear any religious doctrine, provided that these doctrines do not violate regenerates or disrupt the peace. Locke is intolerable of violations of rights of citizens and crime, or anything that disrupts the peace. Individuals do not have the po wer and position to respond and punish the criminals.That task is left to the magistrate. The magistrate has the ability to enforce laws through force but his coercive power essential be kept out of religious matters, in so long as the religious matters do not hinder citizens rights and their peace. Locke believes that in religious matters, true belief in a religion requires more then the coercive power to make one believe. He argues if people are forced to believe in a religion against their will, it will not be as strong and effective unless the person consciously makes his own effort to believe.The ability for the magistrate to impose its power on its people is something Hobbes believes is a requirement and duty of a civil government. Men have an inclination towards peace, which is why men build commonwealths. Men want to get out of this state of war in favor of peace. Therefore, men come together in a commonwealth to make a covenant with every other man to establish peace and order. This sovereign now has the authority to enforce civil laws. This is a necessity because men by themselves erectnot externally judge conflicts and will be pictorially inclined to certain biases.By agreeing to this covenant, the people bestow upon a man or group of men power over sovereign. This covenant alike holds responsibility for the people because they are the ones who gave power to the magistrate. To actually ensure peace, Hobbes says that a sovereign of this power is necessary. The question of the individuals coercive power is another(prenominal) argument in favor of religious toleration. No private Person has any Right, in any manner, to prejudice another Person in his genteel Enjoyments, because he is of another Church or Religion (Letter p. 31). Tolerance brings about honour for the autonomy of the other.Since religious beliefs are freely chosen, there is no dwell for coercion to be a useful end because coercion and freedom cannot coexist in religious matters. Skepticism is another way religious believers can tolerate others holding different religions. Every religious person must tolerate one another because it would be foolish to believe that one person can have all the truths to the world. Similarly, Hobbes supports this argument through the state of nature. Having the freedom to choose ones religion is from the fact that individually, we are all gibe.Hobbes believes that people are equal in strength of body and manifest of mind. There are differences, obviously, but Hobbes argues that these differences do not amount to much. We are fundamentally equal because we all have the ability to kill one another, whether it is through force or deceit. This constant threat of war between man and man is an important reason why men try to constantly essay peace. This state of nature provides us the liberty to our own self-governing because in the state of nature, there is no authority over man.Since man has no authority over him in the state of nature, of course it would mean that man has no authority over another man. However, Hobbes continues that this natural condition of mankind is decidedly undesirable and should be avoided. From the natural state of man the desire for a stable government arises. Men are naturally equal but Hobbes believes self-preservation can only be had by constantly trying to acquire new property, or power. Power is the mans manner to some future good and the acquisition of more power is a constant cycle.Concerning the question of religious power, religious authorities also do not have the power for any coercive actions. Since religious authorities do not have the power to change someone who is not willing, they must respect and tolerate other religious churches or societies, even if there is disagreement with certain doctrines. Lockes reasoning for the toleration of other churches stems from the belief of orthodoxy of the church. Every church believes that it is the Orthodox Church but Locke ar gues that people can never know which is the true Orthodox Church.However, he goes on to say that the true Church is the one that practices the idea of toleration. Despite Lockes adamant stance on toleration, Locke does discuss certain beliefs that should not be tolerated. Locke specifically targets atheism because he believes that men should see into some religious society because God should be publically worshipped. To Locke, atheists are the weak bones to a society because covenants and promises have no power over atheists. This causes problems within society because covenants and promises are the bonds of human society.Similarly, Locke also considers Catholics intolerable because of the political threat they represent. Catholics pledge allegiance to a foreign king. Locke views this as a problem because it brings into question who the Catholic pledges his loyalty to, the foreign king or his homeland king. Locke says that a person should be under the rightful king and not a forei gn king. This means that any foreign jurisdiction in ones country and any influence from the Vatican State is not acceptable. Locke also mentions odd religious practices, such as human sacrifice, as intolerable.The magistrate should make a conscious effort to not tolerate such practices because it could scathe society as a whole. Just because something is a religious matter should not dictate the legality of the practice. Hobbes would probably agree that atheists would not be tolerable under the condition that covenants and promises are not kept because they hold no power over atheists. Hobbes First Law of Nature is that human beings always seek a state of peace because it is the most advantageous to their survival. The Second Law of Nature is the creation of covenants.In Hobbess mind, the ideal covenant would be a leviathan government that would make and regulate laws very effectively. The Third Law of Nature is derived from the second, which states that it is necessary for men to perform their covenants. From these three laws, as stated earlier, men form a commonwealth to ensure peace. If covenants hold no power over atheists, the commonwealth and essentially peace is destroyed. Hobbes is adamant that to fortify this social contract, the members of the contract read steps to prevent others from breaching it.The Third Law of Nature creates a society where peace is established, but if a citizen is not held under contract, the political disruptions are more likely to occur. Lockes primary rationale for toleration in the individual is the self-governing of the other. In Christina writing, loving ones neighbors is a key element in a Christians salvation. Locke emphasizes that one should only care for ones own salvation rather than worrying about his neighbors or others religious teachings.By practicing toleration, one must ignore the content and be satisfied with the fact that the other has reached his conclusion autonomously. Before worrying about someone els e, Locke urges that one must focus on ones own salvation because there are many instances where hypocrisy can rise by imposing ones beliefs. However, there are instances where non-intervention can be unjust because some matters are so offensive, it would be unjust to let it slide. Matters where injury or death can occur are justifiable for others to intervene.Even though this Lockean autonomy works most of the time, there are times where it would not. Lockes reasoning for writing this letter, on the surface, seems to be from a religious perspective. However, a careful reading of the letter suggests that Locke is not interested in religious doctrines or practices. Locke finds that the religious differences are too insignificant for discussion. Although it is a letter concerning toleration of religion, this toleration is meant to benefit from a political standpoint. Reading the document with this point of view shows that Locke was writing it exclusively political in nature.Even though there was widespread religious violence and opposing opinions during the time Locke wrote the letter, it was a way for Locke to talk about the politics of society. This document was on religious toleration only because Locke viewed religion as having potential for civil disruption. This letter is a way for Locke to say what he believed was the means for maintaining peace and constancy. To maintain peace and stability in a society requires sovereignty. The sovereign has the power and authority to govern its principality.Because it has the power to govern, it also gives the sovereign the right to use coercion. This does not give the right to religious institutions to use coercion because it has historically not worked in favor of the religion. The separation of church and state is therefore a way that Locke foresees peace in sovereign. Peace in sovereign is an important aspect to Hobbess Leviathan perspective because he views peace as the main reason we create societies. Religious t oleration is therefore a tool that both Locke and Hobbes would advocate because it creates peace and unity in a sovereign.

Vulnerability Assessment

The maiden thing that must be done to protect a home is to give birth a risk assessment to experience out the potential for threat in the designated approach, vulnerability, and the possibility of consequences of risk occurrence. Three tools that ar normally addressed when planning security for any home are 1. What home security and safety risks are the just about typical of the neighborhood for which the assessment is working and what would families be more exposed to? 2. How exposed are the neighborhood residents?Have they taken the necessary precautions to prevent a disaster and to deter all threats? 3. How much could be lost if these precautions have been ignored? To answer the first question it is important to discover the types of crimes that have been committed in the neighborhood most recently. By asking fellow neighbors and local police crime stripe officers, statistics on most common crimes and how that particular neighborhood stacks up to others in the rest of the county can be found.Once a list of viable threats has been established, checking the home for vulnerabilities that would leave it susceptible to a crime or an accident would be the next step in the process. After identifying the vulnerability to these potential threats, a vulnerability assessment on a residence may be conducted. A vulnerability assessment of a home as well as a list of countermeasures and their costs is what is required next. Focus on the different directions that potential threats may use and the avenues of approach that they will likely take to scupper property or the area surrounding property.There is a neighborhood watch program that is counted on to support additional observation and early warning. The prefigure for such a warning is slamming metal object to metal object in a series of three to alert the neighbors as a enrol to indicate direction and threat. You can better observe your surroundings from your roof or second story. Establishing an observation post/listening post (LP/OP) can be an effective way to gain a superior advantage gaining an elevated advantage in addition to square offed access for potential attackers.If your LP/OP has a cover and concealed approach and withdrawal route back to your house, then this would be an ideal location looking out for one a nonher. You probably do not want to open your home to too many another(prenominal) family or friends in case of disaster or attack because of the supply of food, ammunition, clean water, and toiletries. There are not many avenues of approach that threats can use in order for them to see straight into the neighborhood or directly to the house so the boil down of mitigating this risk is centered around the front and back yards.Place your landscaping like boulders, rock, gravel, trees, and vegetation as well as blinds or curtains can limit the amount of profile that a threat has to see into your home. Loose gravel placed under the windows, broken windows, and doors wi ll make noise and could possibly fantasm anyone from attempting a break in. There are not any covered or concealed routes for attackers on foot to approach your house undetected from, so if they did not use a frontal assault they would have to jump the fence in the backyard to try to gain entry through the back door.The visibility from all windows downstairs is limited collectible to the landscape, however the upstairs has one hundred percent visibility 360 degrees around the entire house. Many dead zones (areas that you cannot see) due to the house being in a sub-division, but no brush will have to be cut down. Windows are easily broken, so forbear yourself prepared for Hurricanes, tornadoes, other bad storms with ? to ? inch plywood cut for all windows with mounting hardware. The lighting that you have surrounding your house can have many uses.Illuminating the areas of approach to your house can force intruders to look for a softer target, and it can also give you and your nei ghbors a better opportunity to give a more detailed description to police when they flee. Mounting your lights with easily re-moveable hardware like wing nuts will assist you if you ever have to move them to a more vulnerable part of your residence. Ballistic weakening is the act of using a shotgun to remove the deadbolts from doors, making it possible for attackers to breach the security of your home. stand for about installing manmade levers that can latch from the bottom of the door to the floor and the top of the door to the ceiling. This creates a major problem for any intruder because it forces them to keep in the fatal funnel for a longer period before entering your home. The fatal funnel is the area most dangerous for anyone trying to breach a room because it is the junior-gradeest area of any room. This creates a better opportunity for the homeowner to defend him or herself by being able to fire a weapons system into a smaller area, reducing the risk of missing the targ et.The ability to defend your home with small arms does not come cheap. Probably the most expensive cost of any home security tool used is the money you will spend, not only on the fire arm itself, but also the ammunition as well. However, being able to shoot from your home is not as near important as it is for your home to withstand small arms fire. Most homes provide terrible cover (protection) from small arms fire. Aside from sand bagging or laying sheet steel on the walls around your windows, any containers that hold dirt would also do. Wargaming is a term often used by the U. S. Army before every mission they conduct overseas. The best vulnerability assessment would come from you wargaming various situations based on the environment you live in, then develop countermeasures to mitigate the threats and weaknesses you have determined. Again, call it wargaming or whatever you will, but it is an effective way to look at contingencies and resources needed to implement better plans a nd countermeasures.

Understanding Change

PART ONE Understanding channel Perspectives on kind The ethics of organisational counter transmute Planned kind and its critics Strategic ex transport Building and breaking competitive improvement 3 39 73 11 1 147 CHAPTER 1 Perspectives on modification 1. 1 Introduction 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, rise, and change 1. 2. 2 Path demeanors to change 1. 3 Structural- fixing(a) change ever-changing structures and functions 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole 1. 3. 2 Structural speculation 1. Multiple constituencies change by negotiation 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests 1. 5 Organizational Development the human raceistic approaching to change 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual aim 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the convocation level 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level 1. 6 creative thinking and Volition a Critical Theory of limiting 1. 6. 1 Conflict, flux, and change 1. 6. 2 People atomic number 18 active agents 1. 6. 3 The critique of the spectator view of knowledge 1. Summary Study questions Exercises Further reading References 4 6 6 7 8 13 16 18 20 22 24 24 25 28 28 29 30 33 35 35 36 36 4 sympathy flip 1. 1 Introduction This chapter lays the framework for this book by arguing that organizational change is develop at heart mildews and frameworks that inform our transforming of the subject. In this chapter we will learn that knowledge and practice of organizational change argon influenced by supposals derived from the models or emplacements we use.For example, if we pick up change as a matter of dodgingic structural ar scopements we hatful make in an organization, then we crowd out hold how the proportion of organism or biological system helps to inform our judgements. Because horizons offer flairs of take ining, they will inevitably organize our perception in line with the dominant analogy utilize. However, analogies argon however partial knowledge claims. Four steads on change be cited in this chapter why four perspectives in particular?The answer to that question is straightforward solely you need to understand at this point that a perspective is an overarching approach that contains a variety of theories that afford become associated with it. You will see why these are the dominant perspectives in one case you obtain read the remainder of this section. First, the structural- serviceable perspective is the oldest approach to organizational construct and therefore change. Like to each one perspective, it contains a variety of theories that move to resolve some of its difficulties as it developed.These theories include the hard systems, systems dynamics, cybernetics, soft systems, criticalsystems heuristics, and postmodern systems persuasion (Jackson, 2003). The structuralfunctional perspective encourages us to think ab issue structural arrangements and functional interrelationships inside organizations. The development of the opens ystems model in the 1950s assisted our understanding advertize by focusing on how inputs to an organization are transformed into outputs. This is useful for thinking about how we might change lying-ins and relationships in a production solve.The value of the structural-functional perspective lies in its ability to change the arrangement of tasks and procedures in relation to the customer or client specification. The advantage of the perspective lies in its ability to look at an organization as a control mechanism that is, to understand the authoritative structural components and to read the functional interrelationships amongst the move. Inevitably, structural re digit will therefore influence the functions that each part produces for the whole. But the perspective has disadvantages as well as.Because it is a model for controlling operations, it is therefore mechanistic. It tends to skip how motivations, behaviours, attitudes, and values contri exclusivelye to in force(p) performance. The dual constituencies perspective emerged from dissatisfaction with the structural-functional perspective. Although it was initi whollyy associated with the work of Cyert and March (1963), it increasingly came to film a range of theories associated with the action and motives of individual actors rather than with the action of systems per se.The bigeminal constituencies perspective refers to the vogue that complex organizations have to negotiate objectives with diametrical groups of stakeholders who have overlapping and often inappropriate needs. When we consider hospitals, health PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE trusts, postal services, public bodies, local government, and transnational companies, then we come to recognize that the organizations needs are inextricably tie beamed to different stakeholder groups. This affects how resources are managed and distributed, as intumesce as how change might be facilitated to maximize efficiency and notioniveness.An investiga tion of how multiple constituencies toy their give birth interests and motivations into the organizational arena will help us to provide an informed approach to managing change by recognizing the various resource needs of different groups. We can recognize the advantage of this perspective in d sensitiveing attention to the various stakeholder needs but we can also recognize that it is limited to a partial abbreviation. It is less interrelateed with developing great deal. It also has a limited view of power. Consequently this reduces organizational change to consensual negotiation mingled with pluralities of groups.Those academics and practitioners that adopt the Organizational Development perspective would share much with the 2 previous perspectives because it embraces both a systems approach and a focus on stakeholders and governance. However, it is distinguished by its methodology of action research as much as it is by its ethical approach to developing organizations thro ugh mickle. For the first time we begin to see batch as resources to be developed rather than as simply costs on a balance sheet. This perspective emerged from the human relations approach, which rivet on personal and group development.However, unlike the two previous perspectives, it suggests that maximum efficiency and effectiveness can non be extend tod by dealing with tasks, procedures, and customers or clients needs without smell at the quality of management, leading, communication, culture, motivation, and values. Because the Organizational Development (OD) perspective on change emerged out of human resource surmisal, it became a synthesis of structural functionalism and behavioral research. The two main contributions of this approach are the focus on cordial characteristics and ts methodology dedicated to a humanistic approach to change and development. OD is also associated with the intellection of planned change and the need to clearly diagnose clients needs befo re making an incumbrance. These provide study advantages in thinking about change but they are also partial and limited to conceptualizing change as a matter of consensus, as does each perspective mentioned so far. The final perspectiveCreativity and Volition a Critical Theory of Change reflects the challenges and assumptions of Critical Theory.It cannot be regarded as a unified perspective, as the differents can, because it does not seek to offer solutions to change problems. But it does go further than any of the other perspectives in demonstrating that people, rather than systems, are the main element of analysis in any change possible action. separately of the other perspectives tends to reify human action. By contrast, this perspective seeks to redress the balance by arguing that people are active agents of change. It also brings another all important(predicate) element under scrutiny.That is, each of the other perspectives focuses on rational change. This has implication s for aspirationing and planning change as a linear sequence of events. However, if change programmes ignore emergent processes that reply more than than from conflict, flux, and uncertainty than from consensus and stability, then intervention strategies will have a limited and often 5 6 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE unintended effect. Because this perspective is derived from Critical Theory we should not assume that it is immune to criticism. The main criticism is that it does not offer solutions.It does not provide useful intervention strategies. It does, however, make us stop and think before we act. You should now be clear that each perspective contains a range of theories that share assumptions, methods, and approaches. These can be stated simply as 1. A focus on systems and structures (the structural-functional perspective). 2. A focus on governance (the multiple constituencies perspective). 3. A focus on behavioral improvement through personal and Organizational Development (the OD perspective). 4.A focus on constant critique (Creativity and Volition a Critical Theory of Change). A simple reminder of the focus is systems, governance, behaviour, and critique. The argument throughout the book is that to manage change you need to understand these interweaving debates. In this chapter we will Explain the benefits and limitations of change contained within the structural-functional perspective. Examine how a multiple constituencies perspective provides arguments for involving stakeholders in complex change initiatives. Explore the value of human resource and organization development interventions as well as their limitations in planned change initiatives. assess why organizational change may be characterized better by conflict, flux, and uncertainty. Consider the source of creativity. Appreciate the role of Critical Theory in understanding organizational change. 1. 2 Perspectives on change 1. 2. 1 Modernity, progress, and change It is important to contextu alize the four perspectives of this chapter by illustrating that each emerged from, or in reaction to, the process of modernism.The experimental condition modernism was originally used to describe the parvenue machine age of the early twentieth century, which reflected progress through the coating of scientific principles, rescript, and control. Scientific principles emerged from the pursuit of rationality embedded in the philosophy of the Enlightenment. The twentieth century was influenced PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE by reformist movements in art and architecture, but the new age was eventually associated with negative qualities that, paradoxically, were linked to its greatest triumphthe machine age.The new machine age was characterized by large-scale movements, revolutions, and world wars which all proclaimed progress through the application of machine technology or through the fiction of the machine as the configuration of efficiency and effectiveness. This was no more apparent than in business and management, where modernity reflected the task of controlling large-scale organizations. Techniques or processes much(prenominal) as bureaucracy, Taylorism, and Fordism came to reflect the new managerialism of the machine age in which the principles of measurement and calculation came to dominate thinking.This emphasis on rational calculation had advantages in the form of mass production of bald-faced goods but, to achieve this, the human cogs in the machine were alienated by a technology that for the most part ignored complaisant practices. You should therefore be aware that the structural-functional perspective emerged at the time when modernism arouseed progress through the application of rational principles. It should be no surprise, then, that it tended to focus on task and throughput by using the metaphor of organism as machine. The perspective referred to as multiple constituencies emerged in the 1960s.It was the first to challenge the naive ration alism of the structural-functional perspective by arguing that an organization is not equivalent to a biological entity and that therefore the organic model was not appropriate to organizations. An organization was better conceived as a legal fiction (Shafritz and Ott, 1991). This had the advantage of persuading us that progress is simply a result of social processes and that all organizations are no more than devices to achieve certain objectives. The perspective helped to establish the humor of change through governance.Organizational Development has been the main tradition of organizational change and has much to recommend it, such as a declared humanistic allegiance to change. It has also developed useful techniques and methods, but its use of the biological model limits its critique. The perspective we call Creativity and Volition a Critical Theory of Change is united only by its objection to modernism. It therefore provides a useful counterbalance to the other perspectives b y offering criticism of the conventional wisdom. But it also suggests that human volition and creativity are a long way from the modernist assumptions of progress. 1. 2. 2 Path shipway to change Each perspective contains theories that lead to a change intervention. The vocalise change intervention refers to change actions taken at a strategic level to help an organization become more effective. A perspective can therefore be regarded as a model for understanding how a subject can be understood. Advocates of a perspective develop theories to inform their views and they prepare methodologies to test the accuracy of their various theories within a perspective. However, each perspective is open to criticism precisely because it contains assumptions about organizational reality.Each is therefore valuable as a framework 8 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Figure 1. 1 Path slipway to change STRUCTURAL-FUNCTIONAL CHANGE Change occurs for dysfunctional reasons when internal functions fail or when struc tures do not reflect the rational design of the best system INTERVENTIONS focus on the adjustment of functional relationships and the structural re-design of the system to placate changing out-of-door environsal conditions MULTIPLE CONSTITUENCIES Change is a negotiated order and organizations are arenas in which internal groups and outside(a) stakeholders seek to exert influenceINTERVENTIONS focus on contractual relationships. A distinction is made between a starchy contract and an free or psychological contract ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT Change is planned once needs are diagnosed INTERVENTIONS focus on both personal and Organizational Development and change CREATIVITY, VOLITION AND CRITICAL THEORY Change results from conflict not consensus INTERVENTIONS are replaced by critical analysis for change, but in the interest of validity we need to be cautious about the claims to certainty that each makes.We would be wise, therefore, to view these perspectives as pathways to underst and organizational change. We can take the analogy further and suggest that each perspective represents a pathway through a minefield of conceptual difficulties. Each perspective is illustrated in Figure 1. 1. 1. 3 Structural-functional change changing structures and functions Structural-functional change is the oldest perspective on organizational change. This perspective is also know as structural-functional analysis. It is effectively a social-systems PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE iew of organizations as opposed to the mechanistic or closed-systems perspective of physics. Henry Fayol was one of the first writers to make the link between structure and function. In his 1916 book General and Industrial Management, he describes the relationship between organizations and biology in terms of an analogy. Thus he points out that, just as organisms evolve and become more sophisticated in their structural properties, so do organizations. We can see why the organic analogy is important to organiza tions when we consider Fayols description of specialization and specialisation.For example, specialization belongs to the natural order it is observable in the animal world, where the more highly developed the creature the more highly differentiated its organs it is observable in human societies where the more important the body corporate the closer its relationship between structure and function. As a society grows, so new organs develop destined to replace the single one performing all functions in the prime state. (Fayol, 1916 19) 9 Thus, as organizations grow and develop, they become much more complex and drive new types of structure.In order to deal with this complexity, work has to be simplified through the disagreement of labour. Some years later, structural-functional analysis viewed the study of organizations as the analysis of both structural and functional interrelationships between elements in an organizational system. Structural-functional analysis of an organizatio n begins with the assumption that organizations are cooperative systems. Whilst they are constituted by individuals, this is less relevant than the fact that they are systems designed to coordinate the actions of individuals. They are better viewed, therefore, as reconciling organisms.This operator that any organizational system is deemed to have basic needs relate to self-maintenance and self-defence (Selznick, 1948 26). Selznick suggests that organizations, as systems, hold themselves by agency of five inseparable imperatives, described as follows 1. The security of the organization as a whole in relation to social forces in its environment. This imperative requires continuous attention to the possibilities of usurpation and to the forestalling of affrightened aggressions or deleterious (though perhaps unintended) consequences of the actions of others. 2.The stability of the lines of say-so and communication. One of the persistent reference points of administrative decisi on is the weighing of consequences for the continued capacitance of leadership to control and to have access to the personnel or ranks. 3. The stability of informal relations within the organization. Ties of sentiment and self-interest are evolved as unvalued but effective mechanisms for adjustment of individuals and subgroups to the conditions of life within the organization. These ties represent a cementing of relationships which sustains the formal 10 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE uthority in day-to-day operations and widens opportunities for effective communication. Consequently, attempts to upset the informal structure will normally be met with considerable resistance. 4. The continuity of policy and of the sources of its determination. For each level within the organization, and for the organization as a whole, it is necessary that there be a whizz that action taken in the light of a given policy will not be placed in continuous jeopardy. Arbitrary or unpredictable changes in polic y undermine the significance of (and therefore the attention to) day-to-day action by injecting a note of caprice.At the same time, the organization will seek stable roots (or firm statutory authority, or popular mandate) so that a sense of the permanency and legitimacy of its acts will be achieved. 5. A homogeneity of outlook with respect to the meaning and role of the organization. To minimize disaffection requires a unity derived from a common understanding of what the character of the organization is meant to be. When this homogeneity breaks d possess, as in situations of internal conflict over basic issues, the continued existence of the organization is endangered.On the other hand, one of the signs of a healthy organization is the ability to orient new members effectively and readily slough off those who cannot be adapted to the established outlook. (Selznick, 1948) These imperatives are the mechanisms of a stable organic system that is employ by analogy to an organization. O ne particularly relevant assumption of this analogy, and indeed of structural functionalism in general, is that of compulsion. thither is little room for individuals to exercise imagination because organizations are viewed as constraining mechanisms that compel people to act in a particular way.When viewed through a structural-functional frame, organizational analysis proceeds by following three basic assumptions, as indicated below. 1. Organizations are cooperative systems with adaptive social structures, made up of moveing individuals, subgroups, and formal and informal relationships. 2. Organizations contain variable aspects, such as goals, which are linked to needs and self-defence mechanisms. 3. Organizations are determined by constraints and characterized by transformations when adjustments to needs are indispensable.Such adjustments are required to deal with dysfunctions caused by instability in the operating environment. The biological attainments were seen as rescuing so cial science from the laws of traditional Newtonian physics, which saw everything as a closed system (Katz and Kahn, 1966 16). Consequently, the emergence of the open-systems model, which was influenced by von Bertalanffys general system theory, enables us to view organizations as continuous flows of inputs, transformations, and outputs beyond their own boundaries. In 1966 Katz and Kahn furnish the concept of an organization as anPERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE open system. This was reinforced by Thompsons systems contingency perspective in 1967. What emerged was an root of an organizational system as an artificial rational construction designed to improve work performance. Unlike the closed systems of physical sciences, social (and biological) systems depend on, and move with, their external environments. For Katz and Kahn, the main difficulty in proactively managing strategic change results from the fact that organizations have in-built protective devices to maintain stability. Changing these patterns is very difficult.Unintended change often occurs when organizations slip from their original aims. As Katz and Kahn indicate the major misconception is the failure to recognize fully that the organization is continually dependent upon inputs from the environment and that the inflow of materials and human aptitude is not a constant. The fact that organizations have built-in protective devices to maintain stability and that they are notoriously difficult to change in the direction of some meliorists desires should not obscure the realities of the dynamic interrelationships of any social structure with its social and natural environment.The very efforts of the organization to maintain a constant external environment produce changes in organizational structure. The reaction to changed inputs to mute their possible revolutionary implications also results in changes. (Katz and Kahn, 1966 278) 1 1 The open-systems model expresses the relationship between the elements as indicated by Figure 1. 2. Figure 1. 2 The open-systems model of Katz and Kahn ENVIRONMENT Task Technology INPUTS Human, financial information, materials Management OUTPUTS Products and services Structure People 12 UNDERSTANDING CHANGEThe organization has inputs that are then transformed through a variety of management functions. These are designed to achieve the best possible organizational design by coordinating the task, through the use of technology by people who are structured or organized in a way that is both efficient and effective. x Stop and think 1. 1 Identify an organization and illustrate its inputs, outputs, and transformational processes. Provide details on how the internal processes are managed and controlled. side by side(p) Katz and Kahn, the open-systems model contains eight characteristics 1.Importing energy from the external environment. Thus, just as the biological cell receives oxygen from the bloodstream or the body takes in oxygen from the advertize and foo d from the external world, the organization draws energy from other institutions. 2. Throughput is a phrase used in numerous organizations, meaning that, as open systems, organizations transform the energy available to them. Just as the body converts starch and sugar into heat and action, an organization takes raw inputs such as materials and people and transforms them by producing products or services.Katz and Kahn suggest that, just as the personality converts chemical and electrical forms of stimulation into sensory qualities, and information into thought patterns, so the organization creates a new product, or processes materials, or trains people, or provides a service. 3. Output is essentially the service or product. Just as the biological organism exports from the lungs physiological products like carbon dioxide that help to maintain plants in the immediate environment, the organization provides customers with an output they value. 4.Systems are cycles of events in which the product is exported into the environment, where it furnishes sources of energy for repetition of the cycle of activities. Thus energy is the exchange of inputs and outputs with the external environment. For example, raw materials and human labour are turned into products and services, which are then marketed for monetary return, which is then used to obtain more raw materials and labour and perpetuates the cycle of activities. 5. selective information is a process described by Katz and Kahn as a universal law of nature in which all forms of organization move toward disorganization or death.For example, all complex physical systems move toward simple random distribution of their elements and biological organisms also run down and perish. Therefore the pick of the organization requires the arrest of the entropic process. This is overcome because the organization imports more energy from its environment than it expends. In other words, social organizations will seek to improve their survival position and to acquire in their reserves a comfortable margin of operation. Organizations do go out of business but they can replenish themselves.As PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Katz and Kahn point out, social systems, however, are not anchored in the same physical constancies as biological organisms and so are capable of more or less indefinite arresting of the entropic process. Nevertheless the number of organizations which go out of existence every year is large. 6. Information input, negative feedback, and the coding process mean that all inputs are also informative in character and furnish signals to the structure about the environment and about its own functioning in relation to the environment.Furthermore, the simplest type of information input found in all systems is negative feedback, which enables the system to correct its deviations from course. Katz and Kahn see this as analogous to the digestive system, in which selective signals are absorbed or assimilated. Terms like adaptation and assimilation reflect the biological analogy because an organization responds only to those signals to which it is adapted, and reacts to the information signals to which it is attuned.Katz and Kahn argue that, rather like the selection process in nature, the term coding reflects the selective mechanisms of a system by which incoming materials are either rejected or accepted and translated for the structure. 7. Organizations, like biological systems, are not motionless, so there can never be a true equilibrium. Instead, we must understand that organizations, like organisms, develop a steady state or continuous inflow of energy from the external environment and a continuous export of the products of the system.The biological analogy is illustrated by the catabolic and anabolic processes of tissue breakdown and restoration within the body that preserve a steady state so that the organism from time to time is not the identical organism it was but a highly similar or ganism. Related to this are what they call the homeostatic processes for the regulation of body temperature. Thus, as external conditions of humidity and temperature vary, the temperature of the body remains the same because it is regulated by the endocrine glands. The steady state and dynamic homeostasis of organizations are regulated by the organizations subsystems. . Organizations move in the direction of differentiation and elaboration. That is, in biological systems genetic change occurs organisms move from primitive to complex arrangements in order to survive. Similarly, as organizations mature they become increasingly diffuse. Thus they move toward the multiplication and elaboration of roles with greater specialization of function. 13 1. 3. 1 An organization is a complex whole As Michael Jackson states, a system is a complex whole the functioning of which depends upon its part and the interactions of those parts (2003 3).Broadly speaking, we can think of three types of syste m Natural biological systems. Social systems, such as families and religious and political institutions, which are socially constructed entities designed to accommodate relationships between people. 14 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Artificial or mechanical systems, such as built environments and information systems, which are designed to make improvements to financial support or work arrangements. One of the advantages of systems theory, as Jackson informs us, is that it is not reductive.That is, it does not seek to reduce complexity by breaking it down into its component parts. Systems theory seeks to understand phenomena as wholes and consequently the term holism is sometimes used to illustrate that a system needs to be seen in its entirety. The whim of holism is articulated by Thompson (1967) Approached as a natural system, the complex organization is a set of interdependent parts which together make up a whole because each contribute something and receive something from a whole, wh ich in turn is interdependent with some larger environment.Survival of the system is taken to be the goal, and the parts and their relationships presumptively are determined through evolutionary processes. Dysfunctions are conceivable, but it is assumed that an offending part will adjust to produce a net autocratic contribution or be disengaged, or else the system will degenerate. Central to the natural-systems approach is the concept of homeostasis, or self stabilization, which spontaneously, or naturally, governs the necessary relationships among parts and activities and thereby keeps the system viable in the face of disturbances stemming from the environment. (Thompson, 1967 283)Systems theory seeks to explain complex interrelationships among organizational elements and external variables by using quantitative techniques. Because they see them as continually changing dynamic equilibria, systems theorists therefore view organizations as designed to cope with and manage change. A n example of this is Weiners model of an organization as an adaptive system. Weiner uses the term cybernetics (from the Greek for steersman) to describe a study of structures and functions of control, and information processing systems in both animals and machines. Thus, such systems are able to regulate themselves.In biological systems this is a natural process, whereas an organizations systems must be designed. The overly mechanistic approach to viewing artificial systems needs to be balanced against two concerns related to to the environment in which the organization exists 1. Organizations are also social systems any technical system requires people to operate it. Consequently their needs must be designed into the technical system. 2. Organizations have contingencies. In other words, the technology used by the organization, the nature of the industry it operates in, the competences of thePERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE staff who work for it, their motivations and leadership are also imp ortant contingencies that affect an organizations performance. Each concern reflects the view that any change interaction must incorporate these constraints into the design of the new (changed) systems model. For example, if an organization is seen as a social system and not simply a technical system, then we must come to recognize the way in which people have to live, work, and engage in some way with the technical system.For systems designers such as architects and computer programmers it is therefore important to involve the people affected by the system. 15 x Stop and think 1. 2 Think of a technical system that you might redesign if asked to do so by an organization. For example, this might be an IT system, a production system, use of a physical space, or an administrative system. If you do not involve in its design the people who will eventually use the system, what negative outcomes might emerge? The link between organizational systems design and contingency theory illustrates how systems theory developed from a simple biological analogy.Galbraiths (1973) book made a clear link between the functional components, organizational structures, and contingent component part of an organization. For example, Galbraiths approach invites us to look for The type and quality of information required in conditions of certainty or uncertainty. The degree of interdependence between the various functional components. Mechanisms that enable organizational adaptation. Table 1. 1 illustrates how information within the system affects an organizations ability to take action towards change. The degree to which hange can be planned depends upon the amount of true(p) information in the system. When the quality of information is high, changes can be planned but are unlikely to be major when conditions are unpredictable, information is unreliable and the degree of success in any change initiative is low. We can therefore state that the greater the level of uncertainty, the mo re the organization must make provisional judgements and be ready to change things quickly. Contingency theorists who work within this perspective view organizational change as the degree of control an organization has over circumstances.Thus we can formulate a simple question for this purpose how wide is the gap between the amounts of information required by this organization at this time? If we take the 2008 world banking crisis as an example, we can illustrate this point. During the month of 16 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE Table 1. 1 Control over circumstances situations where significant change is inevitable The likelihood of major strategic change is low when The situation is highly predictable. Traditional roles and procedures usher action. The quality of information is high.The likelihood of major strategic change is high when The situation is not predictable. New procedures are required. The quality of information is low. October 2008, protracted negotiations between President Bus h and the US Senate representatives, unhappy with his initial plans, eventually resulted in a rescue package for US banks. This was followed by the British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown, part nationalizing some UK banks. Members of the G7 countries lowered interest rates around the world at the same time, also attempting to fuck off a coordinated approach to the world scotch crisis.The reality was that, at the time, no one could realistically estimate its extent the information gap was simply too large. No one really knew who owed specie to whom nor did anyone know what impact the banking crisis was likely to have on other sectors of the world economy. Thus, attempting to steer change was impossible because there was insufficient information to make reliable decisions. Although this is an extreme example, many organizations face similar problems to varying degrees. In situations of severe unpredictability caused by lack of information, managing planned change becomes highly probl ematic.The solution, tally to Galbraith, is to find new solutions The ability of an organization to successfully coordinate its activities by goal setting, hierarchy, and rules depends on the combination of the frequency of exceptions and the capacity of the hierarchy to handle them. As task uncertainty increases, the number of exceptions increases until the hierarchy is overloaded. Then the organization must employ new design strategies. Either it can act in two ways to reduce the amount of information that is processed, or it can act to increase its capacity to handle more information.An organization may choose to develop in both of these ways. (Galbraith, 1973 312) 1. 3. 2 Structural theory The structures of organizations are considered to be amenable to change. Organizations are viewed as rational and should be designed to achieve their objectives. The Classical prepare of Management argued that all organizations should be designed scientifically. The main contributors to the school were Henry Fayol, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE Charles Babbage, Daniel McCullum, Frederick Winslow Taylor, and Max Weber. For these writers, organizational efficiency was achieved through the rational design of organizations.The Classical School assumed that there was a best structure for any organization, related to the environment in which the organization operated. The design of an organization was related to specialization and to the division of labour. particular(a)ization is the extent to which highly skilled operations and individuals are required. Because the design of organizations was seen as a purely rational activity, problems or dysfunctions were seen to result from structural imperfections or flaws that could be solved by changing the organizations structure.Furthermore, although the Classical School considered that a bureaucratic structure was the best means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness, by the 1950s this view was increasingly challenged. The first challe nge emerged with the work of Burns and Stalker (1961), who were interested in the speedily changing electronics industry in Britain, and in Scotland in particular. Their research revealed that organizations in stable operating environments are heavily dependent on control mechanisms and therefore require mechanistic structures.Conversely, the newer industries based on, or developing, micro-electronic technology required organic structures in order to date situations that are changing. The message, therefore, was that the rate of organizational change is critical to organizations. Where they have to meet rapidly changing circumstances and conditions, and where technology is critical to their survival, then organic structures need to be designed. This would also be true today of the spirt industry, where styles change quickly and competition for change requires organizations to get goods into the high street quickly.In the following year Blau and Scott (1962) argued that organizati ons have both a formal structure and an informal aspect to them. The formal structure determines the standard rules and regulations for example, a highly structured organization operating bureaucratic procedures is managed through complex rules, policies, frameworks, and desk instructions. However, they argued that it is impossible to understand how organizations are structured by simply looking at rules and regulations without understanding the informal aspect of the organization.Their argument was heavily influenced by Barnards (1938) book, The Functions of the Executive, and suggested that the informal organization reflects unconscious mind processes. In other words, habits, attitudes, and assumptions of people are critical to performance. This was clearly an early recognition that change requires more than structural redesign because it suggested that senior managers have to align the structure with what we call today the organizations culture. The earlier work of Max Weber in the 1920s reflected his concerns with specialization.By the 1960s academics used the word differentiation to reflect this but also to indicate how specialization is affected by increasingly complex environments. In relation to organizational change, we can note that the process of differentiation increased complexity of organizationsuggests that diverse forces are responsible for pulling organizations apart. This process of differentiation therefore means that 17 18 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE organizational change is required in order to integrate the organization with its new environment.To put this more succinctly, differentiation requires integration. This particular concern was articulated by Lawrence and Lorsch (1969) in their book, Developing Organizations diagnosis and action. It also reflects the emphasis on design since change planning is required to deal with uncertainty caused by rapidly changing circumstances. This was reinforced by Davis and Lawrences (1977) argument that a matrix organization was required when external change was forced upon organizations. Accordingly, they argue that change in design is therefore determined by three conditions 1.Outside pressure for dual focus. What they mean by this is that some companies need to focus attention both on complex technical issues and on the unique requirements of the customer this dual focus requires a matrix structure. 2. Pressures for high information-processing capacity. The second reason to adopt a matrix structure is a requirement for high information-processing capacity among an organizations members. The failure to construct a matrix organization in such circumstances will lead to information overload. 3. Pressure for shared resources.When organizations are under pressure to achieve economies of scale, they need to find ways of utilizing scarce human resources to meet quality standards. Both systems theory and structural theory share the view that organizations are rational and serve utilitaria n purposes. That is, organizations are viewed as a means to achieve efficiency and effectiveness. They do this by identifying clear goals. The structural-functional systems perspective is therefore described as rational because it assumes a relatively simple cause and effect relationship among variables related to functional integration and structural change.As a perspective, it is clear about what it seeks to achieve. Organizational change is relatively straightforward we either change functional relationships in order to achieve harmony or we change the design of the organization in order to meet the complexity of its environment. 1. 4 Multiple constituencies change by negotiation In advancing a critique of the structural-functional perspective Michael Keeley (1983) argues that it is common to model organizations after biological systems. In most texts organizations are depicted as social actors who possess the distinguishing features of living beings such as goals and needs.By c ontrast, individuals are portrayed as functional members filling roles and serving as human resources to further the organizations ends. The organic model is useful mainly for addressing survival needs, PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE but one difficulty is that it tends to confuse the goals of an organization with the goals of strong individuals. The structural-functional perspective presents a reified and overrational picture of social systems. By contrast, the multiple constituencies perspective does not assume that organizations exist independently from the people who work for them or interact with them.Multiple constituency theory was first outlined by Cyert and March in their book A Behavioural Theory of the Firm (1963), which describes organizations as coalitions of self-interested participants. Organizational goals, they argue, change as a result of bargaining processes because an organization is a dynamic coalition of individuals and groups, all of which have different demands. The perspective focuses on how goals are achieved and whose interests are live up to and affected by the actions taken in the name of the organization.If we think, therefore, of an organization containing a number of groups and external stakeholders, all of which have differing interests, then we can consider how organizational change affects each different group, or alternatively how each may make demands on an organization to change its strategy. The multiple constituencies perspective focuses on the way in which resources are managed and distributed among organizational members and stakeholders in the interests of governance. 19 x Stop and think 1. 3 Imagine that you start a new job as a travel executive and are required to visit afield destinations six times a year.You chose this job because you were excited by the prospect of overseas travel. As an incentive, employees are permitted to stay in the destination for two days after they have completed their tasks. Consequently execut ives are motivated to choose an elicit destination. Your organization operates from two different sites in the UK. During your first year of employment you hear rumours that the person who allocates staff to destinations cherry picks the best for herself and then for friends or colleagues who work with her at the main site.You begin to realize that the rumours have a ring of truth about them. What do you do? Try to ingratiate yourself with the decision cleric by becoming friends? Offer to take on more work if she offers you one or two better destinations? Should you take the issue to her line manager at the risk of becoming unpopular? Or do you accept the situation for what it is and that life is not fair? How do you bargain for change? The multiple constituencies perspective criticizes the structural-functional approach for making it difficult to achieve conceptual clarity about what constitutes organizational effectiveness.For example, Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch argue that ef fectiveness statements are evaluative and descriptive. Generally they are not attempts to answer the question how is an entity X performing? but usually how well is entity X performing? and often how much better should entity X perform? The central differentiation among current effectiveness statements is how they specify the evaluation criteria used to define how well the entity is performing or could perform (Connolly, Conlon, and Deutsch, 1980 211). As a result, the multiple 20UNDERSTANDING CHANGE constituency view treats organizations as systems with differential assessments of effectiveness by different constituencies. Although the interests of internal groups (for example, executives, managers, production workers, and so forth) and external stakeholders (for example, clients, shareholders, government regulators, suppliers, and so forth) may overlap, they each have specific interests and priorities or goals they seek to pursue. Each constituency brings its own interests and motivations into the organizational arena.We can therefore consider organizations as webs of fluid interactions between different groups of people whose interests keep changing. The multiple constituencies approach is therefore a means to identify the actions and motivations of people. More importantly, it reflects organizational change as a continuously negotiable order because interests and coalitions change over time. Although the multiple constituencies perspective originated with Cyert and March, it is rooted in the social contract tradition of political and moral argument.The idea of contract theory emerged in the seventeenth century with the political theorists Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau. In the twentieth century such theories have become the basis for political theorists (as we will see in Chapter 7) and writers concerned with corporate ethics (see Chapter 2). 1. 4. 1 Stakeholder interests Since stakeholders reflect dynamic interests, change agents need to learn how to interact with them. There are various ways of doing this. For example, Mitroff (1983) suggests seven approaches.These are 1. The imperative approach, which identifies stakeholders who feel strongly about an organizations proposed policies or actions. This approach requires making a list of as many stakeholders as possible and interacting with them to resolve concerns. 2. The positional approach, which identifies stakeholders who occupy formal positions in a policy-making structure. For example, health trusts, schools, colleges, universities, and charities are required to have boards of governors who must grapple the operations of such organizations.Many boards of governors can be determine from organization charts or legal documents. 3. The reputational approach entails asking various knowledgeable or important people to nominate those they believe to have a stake in the organization. 4. The social participation approach identifies individuals or groups of sta keholders who may have an interest in a policy-related issue for the organization. For example, members of committees, and people who might normally be excluded because they are not so visible, or who do not normally have the opportunity to articulate their views, will be represented. 5.The opinion-leadership approach identifies individuals who have access to leverage of some sort. Examples include informed professionals, commentators, and editors of important newspapers or journals. PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE 6. The demographic approach identifies stakeholders by characteristics such as age, sex, race, occupation, religion, place of birth, and level of education. 7. The focal organization approach seeks to identify individuals and organizations that have important relationships with the focal organization. That is, suppliers, employees, customers or clients, allies, competitors, regulators.The multiple constituencies perspective suggests that, prior to any change initiative, change age nts should analyse the following issues The purposes and motivations of a stakeholder. The resources of a stakeholder. These will include material, symbolic, and physical resources, as well as informational resources and skills. Special knowledge and opinions of the stakeholder. Stakeholders commitments to the organization and expertise. Relationships between stakeholders, focusing particularly on the amount of power (or authority), right, and accountability they have. The extent of the network of interdependent relationships among stakeholders. The extent to which a change in strategy can be identified in the interests of any one particular stakeholder. 21 Such an analysis of stakeholder interests suggests that whilst stakeholders are generally substantiating and have an interest in the organization, they can also become a negative influence on it. They might indeed reflect a threat and become a barrier to organizational change. Mitroff therefore suggests a number of option s for influencing or changing the views and actions of particular stakeholders. We can Simply exercise power and authority by ommanding the stakeholder to comply. Appeal to reason and therefore attempt to persuade the stakeholder. Engage in tactical bargaining with a stakeholder. Negotiate in order to hit a compromise. Engage in problem solving by sharing information, debating, and arriving at mutually agreed perceptions. The multiple constituencies perspective reflects a view of social systems in which people take actions and engage in activities to maximize their own interests. They also collude with others and engage in purposeful activity. Negotiation of organizational change revolves around three central issues 1.Changing organizational objectives requires that leaders be able to re-evaluate the organizations current mission, purposes, objectives, and goals, and mobilize action through inspiration. Such leaders need to embrace inspirational leadership. 22 UNDERSTANDING CH ANGE 2. The ability to develop and mobilize intellectual capital by using the combined resources held by all stakeholders creatively. This should include the identification and cultivation of scarce resources, skills, and capital. 3. The ability to sustain cooperation and to eliminate conflict among stakeholders so that ethical, moral, and cooperative understanding is achieved.The perspective argues that it is constituencies of people, rather than organizations, that have goals and objectives. Consequently, it moves us away from the problem of reification, because stakeholder interests must be negotiated. Yet it still assumes that people act rationally through an appeal to the common good. The perspective draws us towards interventions that focus on a concern with organizational and personal values, social justice, and the distribution of rights and obligations. It provides a useful way forward for organizations in the public cranial orbit that are subjected to public scrutiny thro ugh governance. . 5 Organizational Development the humanistic approach to change Organizational Development (OD) is derived from human resource theory or organizational behaviour. It dates back to the Hawthorne experiments, which began in the Western Electrical Company in 1927. Elton Mayo and his team began these experiments by using the same assumptions as the structural-functional perspective that is, they initially sought to investigate improvements to organizational efficiency by redesigning an organizations environment along scientific principles.The experiments focused on rational practical concerns such as technology and work performance, the rate of flow of materials, and throughput of a factory system. One can therefore recognize the early development of open-systems theory and structural design within these experiments. Their lack of success meant that the problem of efficiency and effectiveness was refocused towards socio-psychological factors, such as group norms. One i nteresting source go out back to 1926 was Mary Parker Folletts description of The Giving of Orders (1926).Follett argued that psychology could make an important contribution to understanding motivational relationships in the workplace. One example she discusses is the brilliance of understanding the law of the situation. Once this is discovered, better attitudes follow. She suggested that giving orders in a positive manner facilitated more harmonious attitudes within the workplace. But related concerns that began with the morsel World War later paved the way for a more sophisticated social science concerned with behaviour in organizations.In particular, a concern to identify effective leadership and to enhance workgroup relationships was paramount because of the American armys focus on morale. As a result, many academics emerged from this tradition with a clear focus on the relationship PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE between leadership, motivation, and group dynamics. The investigation o f individual and organizational needs was part of this use of applied social science. An early example was Maslows research, which resulted in his paper A Theory of Human Motivation (1943).The awareness that human needs impact on organizations was a theme developed further in McGregors The Human Side of Enterprise (1957). By the late 1960s and 1970s OD emerged from this behavioural research as a distinct discipline. Whilst it focused on harmonizing individual and organizational needs, it also readily adopted the open-systems framework of the structural-functional perspective. French and Bell (1978) were mostly responsible for articulating this approach when they characterized the perspective as a mixture of open-systems theory with humanistic values.Today, we can discern six essential characteristics of OD. These are 1. A methodology informed largely by Action Researcha term coined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s. 2. Interventions should only result from careful organizational diagnosis (Tichy, Hornstein, and Nisberg, 1976). 3. A recognition that effective change requires process consultation (Schein, 1995) rather than negotiation through an individual in order to achieve corporate social responsibility in change initiatives.It should be noted that this is in line with ODs humanistic approach to change. 4. An awareness of barriers to personal growth and organizational change, championed largely by Elisabeth Kubler-Ross (1973). 5. An emphasis on personal and organizational attainment in contrast to training, proposed by Reg Revans (1982). 6. A recognition that groups and culture will influence change initiatives, articulated by Lewin (1951) and Schein and Bennis (1965). OD emerged as a distinctive discipline for managing change.It did so initially by adopting experiential approaches such as T-groups (training groups) and Lewins labour Field Analysis as a technique for managing organizational transitions. Action Research encouraged employees to develop a collaborat ive approach to diagnosing problems and prosecute in action learning. Argyriss book on Intervention Theory and Method (1970) is a comprehensive review of process-consultation techniques articulated by Schein (1995) and intervention techniques that became associated with the idea of planned, organization-wide change.Such change strategies were managed from the top in order to increase organizational effectiveness and health through interventions in the organizations processes using behavioural science knowledge (Beckhard, 1969). Lewins (1951) three stages of changeunfreeze, change, refreezereflects the essence of the traditional OD approach through which a clear goal or destination is identified and cascaded to the organizations members. This has been described as a linear model of change (Marshak, 1993) that tends to omit the 23 24 UNDERSTANDING CHANGE untidy parts of the process that do not fit neatly into Lewins framework (Inns 1996 23). Most critics of Lewins planned change mode l make this argument. However, we must be cautious about this since, as we will see in Chapter 3, Lewin did not apply this approach to organization-level change. Often, OD proceeds with problem identification through the application of Action Research at the individual, the group, or the organizational level. Following careful diagnosis, intervention strategies are designed to deal with an organizational problem by applying various techniques.At the individual level, behaviour modification theory is often used to encourage personal growth. At the group level, intervention strategies are informed by analysis of group dynamics, whilst at the organizational level, strategic interventions are designed to manage strategic change through the application of technology, structural change, or change to human resources. We can understand how these interventions work by exploring them in greater depth. 1. 5. 1 Intervention strategies at the individual level Strategies at the individual level w ere influenced by behaviour modification theory.The purpose of this technique is to increase the frequency of desired behaviours and reduce the frequency of undesired behaviours. Behaviour modification therefore seeks to modify the behaviours of individuals by training people to recognize a positive stimulus in order to provoke a desired response. It can also be used to change an individuals reaction to fears and phobias. Intervention strategies used instead of behaviour modification theory include personal and management development techniques such as Lewins Force Field Analysis and learning interventions designed to improve personal learning. Stop and think 1. 4 We rarely remember modifying our own behaviour but we do this all the time. Think about the last time you learned a new skill. How difficult was this at first? During the learning process how did you modify your own behaviour or attitudes? How did evaluation lead to improvement? 1. 5. 2 Intervention strategies at the group level At the group level, intervention strategies originated from studies of group dynamics including armed forces personnel, industrial workers, and professional groups. Group dynamics was first defined by Kurt Lewin in the 1940s.Observations of groups led Lewin to note that groups develop personalities as a result of their unique composition. Change was therefore more likely when the group as a whole made a joint decision to have its members change their behaviours. This was far more effective in producing the desired changes than more formal techniques such as lectures and PERSPECTIVES ON CHANGE instruction. Lewins work became the foundation for training in group skills, sensitivity training, teambuilding, and OD. Groups therefore can be a major influence on change, or can inhibit change.However, the capability of a group to respond flexibly to change will depend on the degree to which its members Explore problem-solving alternatives. Are motivated to achieve the objectives o f the group. Make an effort to learn how to change. Discover what specifically needs to be changed to meet current demands. Are prepared to experiment. 25 1. 5. 3 Intervention strategies at the organizational level At the organizational level, a greater depth was provided by a focus on planned change interventions.Planned change strategies, according to Chin and Benne (1976), emerged from the Enlightenment tradition with the application of rational thought to interventions in the modern world. In other words, changing things requires an application to reason. Associated with this was the pursuit of social progress. Chin and Benne describe a central element common to all planned change programmes as the conscious utilisation and application of knowledge as an instrument or tool for modifying patterns and institutions of practice (1976 22).Planned change interventions are therefore extremely varied but they fall under three wide-cut headings 1. Empiricalrational interventions, suc h as political interventions giving rise to new